Everything below concerns GABA-A receptor. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2025-09-19. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Regulatory treatment varies by jurisdiction. In Russia the compound is a registered prescription product, while in the European Union and the United States it is generally handled as a research chemical without a marketing authorization. Suppliers therefore operate outside pharmaceutical oversight, and buyers rely on supplier documentation for purity and identity claims. Chain of custody and third-party testing are the main verification tools. Analysts note that the absence of a pharmacopoeial monograph for research-grade material limits standardization across vendors.
Purity assessment relies mainly on reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. Because the peptide lacks a strong chromophore, detection often uses backbone absorbance near 214 nm. Identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry, typically electrospray ionization or matrix-assisted laser desorption, comparing the measured mass against the expected value. Amino acid analysis can verify composition after acid hydrolysis. Diastereomer content and residual counterions are reported less often, although both can influence biological assays.
Identity and purity are usually assessed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, with mass spectrometry used to confirm molecular mass and sequence information. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping may supplement these methods. Certified reference standards are scarce, and many commercial lots are sold as research chemicals without a pharmacopoeial monograph. Regulatory treatment differs by country: Selank is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while in the European Union and the United States it is not an approved drug and may fall under research-chemical or unapproved-product frameworks.
Selank is a hydrophilic peptide and dissolves readily in water and in aqueous buffers. The lyophilised powder is typically a white to off-white solid. Because short peptides are prone to hydrolysis and oxidation, handling benefits from limiting exposure to heat, moisture and strong light. Working solutions are commonly prepared in sterile water or saline, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles are avoided to reduce aggregation and loss of activity. These practices reflect general laboratory convention rather than published stability specifications.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Typical purity report | 95% or higher by HPLC | Area percentage at 214 nm |
| Identity confirmation | Mass spectrometry | Electrospray or MALDI |
| Powder storage | -20 C, desiccated | Protect from light |
| Solution storage | 2-8 C short term | Freeze aliquots for longer |
| Quality document | Certificate of analysis | States method and value |
The compound was designed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences during the 1980s and 1990s. The stated design goal was to retain the immunomodulatory and central nervous system activity attributed to tuftsin while improving resistance to enzymatic breakdown. Adding a proline-rich tail to the short parent peptide was a deliberate strategy, because proline residues restrict the conformations available to many peptidases. The same laboratory produced Semax, an ACTH fragment analog, and both compounds were developed in parallel as short, enzymatically stabilized peptides intended for intranasal use.
Selank is not a naturally occurring peptide and has no known endogenous counterpart in human physiology. Russian-language sources frequently call it TP-7, while English-language sources use the name Selank almost exclusively. Database indexing is uneven, partly because early reports appeared in regional journals that are not widely cataloged. Some summaries describe the material as a tuftsin analog and others as a synthetic heptapeptide; the labels overlap rather than conflict. Citing the primary sequence resolves ambiguity more reliably than the research or trade name alone.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro, written TKPRPGP in one-letter notation. Its structure consists of the immunomodulatory tetrapeptide tuftsin, Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg, extended at the carboxyl terminus by a Pro-Gly-Pro segment. The molecular formula is commonly given as C33H57N11O9, corresponding to a monoisotopic mass near 751.4 Da and an average molecular mass near 751.9 Da. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, and the molecule carries no modified side chains or non-natural linkages.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its four N-terminal residues reproduce tuftsin, a tetrapeptide fragment of the immunoglobulin heavy chain, while the C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is a synthetic addition. The peptide has a molecular mass near 752 daltons and carries a net positive charge at physiological pH because of the arginine and lysine side chains. Published indexes list it under the name Selank and the sequence abbreviation TKPRPGP. Solid-phase peptide synthesis is the standard production route for research quantities.
Development took place at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where a series of short peptides were designed in the 1980s and 1990s. Selank was selected from variants of tuftsin that showed resistance to plasma peptidases. Russian regulatory approval covers it as an anxiolytic agent given intranasally. Outside that market the compound is normally handled as a research chemical rather than a medicine, and no widely recognised international pharmacopoeial monograph exists. The name Selank is a coined trade designation rather than a systematic chemical name.
Pharmacokinetic data are limited. Like most short peptides, Selank is vulnerable to plasma and tissue peptidases, and its measured half-life in circulation is short, on a minutes scale. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail slows this degradation but does not eliminate it. Intranasal administration is the route described in most reports, with absorption through the nasal mucosa and a hypothesized path into the central nervous system that avoids the blood-brain barrier. Direct measurements of human brain exposure are unavailable, so distribution claims rest on inference from animal work.
Clinical evidence comes mainly from small studies conducted in Russia, several of which were open-label or lacked robust blinding. Reported outcomes include lower anxiety scores, changes in attention measures, and effects on asthenic states following illness. Sample sizes are typically in the tens of participants, and independent replication outside the region is scarce. Reviews published in English generally note the limited methodological quality of the underlying trials. Whether the compound produces clinically meaningful effects under rigorous conditions remains unresolved.
Proposed mechanisms center on modulation of the GABA system, but no single molecular target has been confirmed. Rodent studies report changes in GABA-A receptor expression and in the turnover of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in several brain regions. Increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor have also been described after repeated administration. These findings come largely from animal models, and the degree to which they describe human neurochemistry remains an open question. The mechanism is best characterized as multi-system and not fully resolved.
Proposed mechanisms centre on the GABAergic system. Animal and tissue studies report changes in GABA-A receptor expression and reduced activity of GABA transaminase, the enzyme that degrades GABA. Effects on monoamine turnover, including serotonin and dopamine pathways, are also described, and a separate line of work links the peptide to increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in hippocampal tissue. Most of these findings come from rodent models and cell preparations. How the individual observations combine into a single coherent mode of action is not settled.
Pharmacokinetic data are sparse and largely derived from animal work. After intranasal administration the peptide appears in plasma within minutes, and reported half-lives are short, on the order of minutes to tens of minutes. Degradation proceeds through ordinary proteolytic cleavage into constituent amino acids and smaller fragments. Direct evidence that intact Selank reaches brain tissue in meaningful amounts is limited, and the extent of blood-brain barrier penetration is debated. Some authors argue that fragments, not the parent peptide, carry much of the observed activity.
Published clinical work is concentrated in Russian-language journals and generally involves small samples without independent replication. Systematic reviews in English note the shortage of randomised, placebo-controlled trials and the difficulty of verifying methods from translated reports. Outcome measures vary between studies, which complicates pooling of results. Interest in the compound as a cognitive or anxiolytic agent therefore rests on a thinner evidence base than the volume of citations suggests. Replication in well-powered trials with preregistered endpoints would be needed before firm conclusions about efficacy can be drawn.
In the 19th and early 20th century, modernist art, politics, science, and culture have come to dominate not only Western Europe and North America, but almost every area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed to the western world and globalization. The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism, capitalism, socialism, urbanization and a belief in the positive possibilities of technological and political progress. The brutal wars and other conflicts of this era, many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms, have led to many reactions against modern development. Optimism and the belief in constant progress have been most recently criticized by postmodernism, while the dominance of Western Europe and North America over the rest of the world has been criticized by postcolonial theory.
ImmTACs exert their activity through T cell redirection, a mechanism of action used by several other bi-specific biologics such as the Bi-specific T-cell engagers (BiTEs). After administration of the drug the picomolar affinity TCR portion of the ImmTAC binds to the cancerous or virally infected cell through specific recognition of target HLA-peptide complexes on their cell surface. This picomolar affinity binding results in the diseased cells becoming coated in CD3 co-receptor specific scFv antibody fragments that constitute the ImmTAC effector function. Any Cytotoxic T cell that subsequently comes into direct physical contact with the ImmTAC coated diseased cell is redirected to kill it, regardless of the specificity of its native TCR. This redirected killing does not require binding of any co-stimulatory molecules and is effected through the targeted release of perforin and granzyme from the redirected T cell that induces the targeted disease cell to die through an apoptosis mediated mechanism. However, the danger of activating a wide variety of nonspecific cytotoxic T cell clones via anti-CD3 scFv exists, leading to their proliferation and widespread autoimmunity.
Other techniques (such as X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone abscess or a spongiform encephalopathy produced by a prion. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is likely to be benign.
The main application of ZDDPs are as anti-wear additives in lubricants including greases, hydraulic oils, and motor oils. ZDDPs also act as corrosion inhibitors and antioxidants. Concentrations in lubricants range from 600 ppm for modern, energy-conserving low-viscosity oils to 3000 ppm in some racing oils. It has been reported that zinc and phosphorus emissions may damage catalytic converters and standard formulations of lubricating oils for gasoline engines now have reduced amounts of the additive due to the API limiting the concentration of this additive in new API SM and SN oils; however, this affects only 20- and 30-grade "ILSAC" oils. Grades 40 and higher have no regulation regarding the concentration of ZDDP, except for diesel oils meeting the API CJ-4 specification which have had the level of zddp reduced slightly, although most diesel Heavy-Duty Engine oils still have a higher concentration of this additive. Crankcase oils with reduced ZDDP have been cited as causing damage to, or failure of, classic/collector car flat-tappet camshafts and lifters which undergo very high boundary layer pressures and/or shear forces at their contact faces, and in other regions such as main bearings, and piston rings and pins. Roller camshafts/followers are more commonly used to reduce camshaft lobe friction in modern engines.
== Contraindications == Apomorphine is contraindicated when used concomitantly with serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, including ondansetron, granisetron, and palonosetron, as this combination has been associated with profound hypotension and loss of consciousness. It is also contraindicated with allergies to the drug or its excipients, including sulfites. Intravenous administration of apomorphine is associated with blood clots and pulmonary embolism due to crystallization in the vein and is not recommended.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Micropore: With a Slit width less than 2 nm, they are usually found at the end of larger pores and their main characteristic is to have superimposed wall potentials. This means, the particles inside them feel attracted towards their solid walls so they make contact with the active sites. Mesopore: With a Slit width between 2 and 50 nm these mid-size pores have the main objective to withhold capillary condensation and is usually found before the micropores. Macropore: With a Slit width bigger than 50 nm, these are the biggest size pores with the main purpose of being the main path for the molecules to enter the particle and later on redistribute through the other smaller channels
=== Biology and medicine === Cerebral palsy Certified Prosthetist, an American medical qualification Ceruloplasmin, an enzyme encoded by the CP gene Congenital prosopagnosia, a type of inability to recognize faces Chronic pancreatitis
=== 2nd Congress (1975) === The CLP held its 2nd Congress in November 1975. The Political Resolution at this Congress stated, "The struggle within the socialist camp is increasingly taking a national form – a form that makes ever more difficult the militant expressions of solidarity of the revolutionary proletariat within the socialist sector.” And, "Our Party … does not choose national sides in this ... struggle that is taking place within the socialist camp. Our Party unconditionally supports revolution and conditionally supports states.” This Political Resolution also discussed globalization, with the CLP viewing it as a the consolidation of an international bourgeoisie. Just before the 3rd Congress, ten members left the CLP. Called the "action faction,” this faction wanted the CLP to become more active in and "build the movement.” The CLP position was that the time was not right for direct action. Instead, the CLP needed to spend more time building class consciousness.. Tension between these two perspectives continued throughout the life of the CLP.
The first treatments with Adelaide-produced insulin were delivered by Robertson's Medical Science Club colleague, Dr. Trent Champion de Crespigny (Honorary Physician to the Adelaide Children's Hospital). The first treated was gravely-ill 9 years-old Dawson Hanna (1913–1926), at the Adelaide Children's Hospital on 7 January 1923, who lived for another three years. The first adult treated with Adelaide-produced insulin was the comatose and moribund 34 years-old Clifford Harry Cornish (1888–1954), at the Adelaide Hospital on 31 January 1923, who lived for another thirty years. All of the Adelaide-produced insulin used for these treatments had been delivered "free of charge" to the patients.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Pictures, movies and applets showing the anatomy of Mus musculus, from www.digimorph.org Michael Purdy: "Researchers add mice to list of creatures that sing in the presence of mates" Archived 2008-12-26 at the Wayback Machine-Study of male mouse "song" with mouse song recording (MP3), by Washington University Medical School "It's just in mice! This scientist is calling out hype in science reporting". STAT. 2019-04-15. Arkive Photographs.Short text. High-Resolution Brain Maps and Brain Atlases of Mus musculus Further reading
The average gross monthly wage in Moscow is ₽123,688 ($2,000); this wage is around twice the national average of ₽66,572 ($1,000), and it is one of the highest among the federal subjects (constituent entities) of Russia. Moscow is home to the third-highest number of billionaires among cities internationally, and the highest number among cities in Europe. Moscow is Russia's financial center, as well as headquarters for the country's largest banks and many of its largest companies (e.g., energy company Rosneft). Moscow accounts for 17% of Russia's retail sales and 13% of its construction activity. Since the 1998 Russian financial crisis, business sectors in Moscow have shown strong growth. Many business centers and office buildings have been constructed in recent years, but Moscow still has a shortage of office space. As a result, many former industrial and research facilities are being rebuilt for office use. Economic stability has improved overall in recent years; nonetheless, crime and corruption hinder business development.
==== Supercapacitor ==== Due to graphene's high surface-area-to-mass ratio, one potential application is in the conductive plates of supercapacitors. In February 2013 researchers announced a novel technique to produce graphene supercapacitors based on the DVD burner reduction approach. In 2014 a supercapacitor was announced that was claimed to achieve energy density comparable to current lithium-ion batteries. In 2015 the technique was adapted to produce stacked, 3-D supercapacitors. Laser-induced graphene was produced on both sides of a polymer sheet. The sections were then stacked, separated by solid electrolytes, making multiple microsupercapacitors. The stacked configuration substantially increased the energy density of the result. In testing, the researchers charged and discharged the devices for thousands of cycles with almost no loss of capacitance. The resulting devices were mechanically flexible, surviving 8,000 bending cycles. This makes them potentially suitable for rolling in a cylindrical configuration. Solid-state polymeric electrolyte-based devices exhibit areal capacitance of >9 mF/cm2 at a current density of 0.02 mA/cm2, over twice that of conventional aqueous electrolytes. Also in 2015 another project announced a microsupercapacitor that is small enough to fit in wearable or implantable devices. Just one-fifth the thickness of a sheet of paper, it is capable of holding more than twice as much charge as a comparable thin-film lithium battery. The design employed laser-scribed graphene, or LSG with manganese dioxide.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Purity is usually reported as an HPLC area percentage, most often measured at 214 nm. Identity is confirmed separately by mass spectrometry. A certificate of analysis should state both the method and the observed value.
Dry powder is kept frozen, desiccated, and shielded from light. Dissolved material is aliquoted and frozen to limit freeze-thaw cycles. Short-term refrigerated storage is common for working solutions.
Russia registers it as a prescription nasal product. Most other markets classify it as a research chemical with no approved medical use. Oversight of purity and labeling is consequently minimal in those markets.
Dry powder is normally held at -20 degrees Celsius or below in a sealed, light-protected container with desiccant. Brief room-temperature handling during weighing is generally tolerated. Storage instructions vary between suppliers, so the accompanying certificate of analysis should be followed.