If you have been reading about Intranasal route and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2026-02-19. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Animal studies have examined behaviour in tests of anxiety, memory retention and stress response, and several report changes in neurotrophic or neurotransmitter-related markers. The human evidence base is much smaller, consisting mainly of short trials conducted in Russia with limited reporting in English-language journals. Sample sizes are modest and outcome measures vary between studies, so the findings are best described as preliminary. Independent replication under modern trial standards has not been widely reported.
Outside its country of origin the compound is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. No regulatory approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency has been granted for human use. Identity and purity are normally checked by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, with mass spectrometry used to confirm the molecular mass. Lyophilised material is stored cold and desiccated, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles are avoided.
Proposed mechanisms center on modulation of the GABA system, but no single molecular target has been confirmed. Rodent studies report changes in GABA-A receptor expression and in the turnover of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in several brain regions. Increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor have also been described after repeated administration. These findings come largely from animal models, and the degree to which they describe human neurochemistry remains an open question. The mechanism is best characterized as multi-system and not fully resolved.
Pharmacokinetic data are limited. Like most short peptides, Selank is vulnerable to plasma and tissue peptidases, and its measured half-life in circulation is short, on a minutes scale. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail slows this degradation but does not eliminate it. Intranasal administration is the route described in most reports, with absorption through the nasal mucosa and a hypothesized path into the central nervous system that avoids the blood-brain barrier. Direct measurements of human brain exposure are unavailable, so distribution claims rest on inference from animal work.
Clinical evidence comes mainly from small studies conducted in Russia, several of which were open-label or lacked robust blinding. Reported outcomes include lower anxiety scores, changes in attention measures, and effects on asthenic states following illness. Sample sizes are typically in the tens of participants, and independent replication outside the region is scarce. Reviews published in English generally note the limited methodological quality of the underlying trials. Whether the compound produces clinically meaningful effects under rigorous conditions remains unresolved.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common route | Intranasal | Also injected in some animal work |
| Solubility class | Freely soluble in water | Solid form is hygroscopic |
| Typical storage | About -20 degrees Celsius | Keep desiccated and dark |
| Purity method | Reverse-phase HPLC | Reported as area percent |
| Confirmatory method | Mass spectrometry | Verifies expected molecular mass |
Selank is studied chiefly as an animal-model anxiolytic with proposed secondary effects on memory and immune signaling. Reported mechanisms include modulation of the GABA-A receptor complex, inhibition of enkephalin-degrading enzymes, and shifts in monoamine turnover within limbic structures. Some experiments describe increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the hippocampus after repeated dosing. No single molecular target has been confirmed, and the peptide does not bind any receptor with the selectivity typical of a conventional small-molecule drug. Mechanism therefore remains a set of hypotheses rather than an established pathway.
Laboratory work relies on standard behavioral paradigms. Rodents are tested in the elevated plus maze, open field, and passive avoidance tasks, with outcomes compared against diazepam or vehicle controls. Intranasal dosing is used most often because it bypasses first-pass metabolism, though intraperitoneal and intravenous routes also appear in published protocols. Biochemical endpoints include tissue BDNF concentrations, cytokine levels, and monoamine metabolites. Human data are limited to small Russian trials reporting reduced anxiety scores; most were not prospectively registered, and few employed independent outcome assessment.
Measuring peptide exposure inside the brain is technically difficult. Selank is degraded rapidly in plasma, and assays must separate intact peptide from fragments, which favors targeted mass spectrometry over immunoassays alone. Reported half-lives are short, on the order of minutes, so effects observed hours later are attributed to downstream signaling rather than to the parent compound. Blood-brain barrier permeability is debated and rarely quantified directly. Gaps include absent dose-response characterization, inconsistent reporting of purity, and almost no pharmacokinetic data from human participants.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in Russia during the 1990s. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences designed it as a stabilized analog of tuftsin, a naturally occurring immunomodulatory tetrapeptide. The compound has been studied primarily for its reported anxiolytic and nootropic effects. It remains largely unknown in Western pharmacology and is not approved as a medicine by major regulators such as the FDA or the EMA.
The primary structure of Selank is Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro, corresponding to the molecular formula C33H57N11O9 and a monoisotopic mass of roughly 751.9 daltons. The N-terminal threonine and the arginine residue in the fourth position are shared with tuftsin, which carries the sequence Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg. The three additional residues at the C-terminus, Pro-Gly-Pro, extend the chain and are associated with greater resistance to enzymatic degradation. This extension also separates Selank from the shorter parent peptide.
== External South African operations (1978–1984) == Access to Angola provided PLAN with limitless opportunities to train its forces in secure sanctuaries and infiltrate insurgents and supplies across South West Africa's northern border. The guerrillas gained a great deal of leeway to manage their logistical operations through Angola's Moçâmedes District, using the ports, roads, and railways from the sea to supply their forward operating bases. Soviet vessels offloaded arms at the port of Moçâmedes, which were then transshipped by rail to Lubango and from there through a chain of PLAN supply routes snaking their way south towards the border. "Our geographic isolation was over," Nujoma commented in his memoirs. "It was as if a locked door had suddenly swung open...we could at last make direct attacks across our northern frontier and send in our forces and weapons on a large scale." In the territories of Ovamboland, Kaokoland, Kavangoland and East Caprivi after 1976, the SADF installed fixed defences against infiltration, employing two parallel electrified fences and motion sensors. The system was backed by roving patrols drawn from Eland armoured car squadrons, motorised infantry, canine units, horsemen and scrambler motorcycles for mobility and speed over rough terrain; local San trackers, Ovambo paramilitaries, and South African special forces. PLAN attempted hit-and-run raids across the border but, in what was characterised as the "corporal's war", SADF sections largely intercepted them in the Cutline before they could get any further into South West Africa itself.
mitosis Also M phase. In eukaryotic cells, the part of the cell cycle during which the division of the nucleus takes place and replicated chromosomes are separated into two distinct nuclei. Mitosis is generally preceded by the S phase of interphase, when the cell's DNA is replicated, and either occurs simultaneously with or is followed by cytokinesis, when the cytoplasm and plasma membrane are divided into two new daughter cells. Colloquially, the term "mitosis" is often used to refer to the entire process of cell division, not just the division of the nucleus.
Myeloproliferative disease (primarily essential thrombocythemia and polycythemia vera). It has been found to be superior to anagrelide for the control of ET. Sickle-cell disease (increases production of fetal hemoglobin that then interferes with the hemoglobin polymerisation as well as by reducing white blood cells that contribute to the general inflammatory state in sickle cell patients.) Second line treatment for psoriasis (slows down the rapid division of skin cells) Systemic mastocytosis with associated hematological neoplasm(SM-AHN) (The utility in treating SM-AHN with hydroxycarbamide stems from its myelosuppressive activity, it does not however exhibit any selective anti-mast cell activity) Chronic myelogenous leukemia (largely replaced by imatinib, but still in use for its cost-effectiveness)
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Structure == The parenchyma is the functional parts of an organ, or of a structure such as a tumour in the body. This is in contrast to the stroma, which refers to the structural tissue of organs or of structures, namely, the connective tissues.
CPA started being used in animal experiments around the world to investigate how antiandrogens affected fetal sexual differentiation. The first clinical use of CPA in the treatment of sexual deviance and prostate cancer occurred in 1966. It was first studied in the treatment of androgen-dependent skin and hair symptoms, specifically acne, hirsutism, seborrhea, and scalp hair loss, in 1969. CPA was first approved for medical use in 1973 in Europe under the brand name Androcur. In 1977, a formulation of CPA was introduced for use by intramuscular injection. CPA was first marketed as a birth control pill in 1978 in combination with ethinylestradiol under the brand name Diane. Following phase III clinical trials, CPA was approved for the treatment of prostate cancer in Germany in 1980. CPA became available in Canada as Androcur in 1987, as Androcur Depot in 1990, and as Diane-35 in 1998. Conversely, CPA was never introduced in any form in the United States. This was reportedly due to concerns about breast tumors observed with high-dose pregnane progestogens in beagle dogs as well as concerns about potential teratogenicity in pregnant women. Use of CPA in transgender women, an off-label indication, was reported as early as 1977. The use of CPA in transgender women was well-established by the early 1990s. The history of CPA, including its discovery, development, and marketing, has been reviewed.
Finally, rapG and rapH have been identified to code for enzymes that have a positive regulatory role in the preparation of rapamycin through the control of rapamycin PKS gene expression. Biosynthesis of this 31-membered macrocycle begins as the loading domain is primed with the starter unit, 4,5-dihydroxocyclohex-1-ene-carboxylic acid, which is derived from the shikimate pathway. Note that the cyclohexane ring of the starting unit is reduced during the transfer to module 1. The starting unit is then modified by a series of Claisen condensations with malonyl or methylmalonyl substrates, which are attached to an acyl carrier protein (ACP) and extend the polyketide by two carbons each. After each successive condensation, the growing polyketide is further modified according to enzymatic domains that are present to reduce and dehydrate it, thereby introducing the diversity of functionalities observed in rapamycin (figure 1). Once the linear polyketide is complete, L-pipecolic acid, which is synthesized by a lysine cycloamidase from an L-lysine, is added to the terminal end of the polyketide by an NRPS. Then, the NSPS cyclizes the polyketide, giving prerapamycin, the first enzyme-free product. The macrocyclic core is then customized by a series of post-PKS enzymes through methylations by MTases and oxidations by P-450s to yield rapamycin.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The white-minority National Party government were initially supportive, seeing SASO's creation as a victory for apartheid's ethos of racial separatism. Influenced by the Martinican philosopher Frantz Fanon, Biko and his compatriots developed Black Consciousness as SASO's official ideology. The movement campaigned for an end to apartheid and the transition of South Africa toward universal suffrage and a socialist economy. It organised Black Community Programmes (BCPs) and focused on the psychological empowerment of black people. Biko believed that black people needed to rid themselves of any sense of racial inferiority, an idea he expressed by popularizing the slogan "black is beautiful". In 1972, he was involved in founding the Black People's Convention (BPC) to promote Black Consciousness ideas among the wider population. The government came to see Biko as a subversive threat and placed him under a banning order in 1973, severely restricting his activities. He remained politically active, helping organise BCPs such as a healthcare centre and a crèche in the Ginsberg area. During his ban he received repeated anonymous threats, and was detained by state security services on several occasions. Following his arrest in August 1977, Biko was beaten to death by state security officers. Over 20,000 people attended his funeral. Biko's fame spread posthumously. He became the subject of numerous songs and works of art, while a 1978 biography by his friend Donald Woods formed the basis for the 1987 film Cry Freedom.
Moreover, the Australian High Court is behind international standards by refusing to accept that employment is shaped by unequal bargaining power, or carries a duty of mutual trust and confidence, even a similar duty is accepted for commercial franchising and distribution agreements. In Commonwealth Bank of Australia Ltd v Barker the High Court held there was no duty of mutual trust and confidence because employment is already heavily regulated by statute, which led to their conclusion that fair treatment in redundancy was not implied. By contrast, under the Independent Contractors Act 2006 section 12 explicitly states courts have the power to review and vary independent contractors' contracts if they are unfair, given their unequal bargaining power and lack of other statutory rights. Terms may also be implied by custom 'so well known and acquiesced in that everyone making a contract... can reasonably be presumed to have imported that term into the contract.'
Some GSDs have different forms, e.g. infantile, juvenile, adult (late-onset). Some GSDs have different subtypes, e.g. GSD1a / GSD1b, GSD9A1 / GSD9A2 / GSD9B / GSD9C / GSD9D. GSD type 0: Although glycogen synthase deficiency does not result in storage of extra glycogen in the liver, it is classified with the GSDs as type 0 because it is another defect of glycogen storage and can cause similar problems. GSD type VIII (GSD 8): In the past, liver phosphorylase-b kinase deficiency was considered a distinct condition, however it has been classified with GSD type VI and GSD IXa1; it has been described as X-linked recessive inherited. GSD IX has become the dominant classification for this disease, grouped with the other isoenzymes of phosphorylase-b kinase deficiency. GSD type XI (GSD 11): Fanconi-Bickel syndrome (GLUT2 deficiency), hepatorenal glycogenosis with renal Fanconi syndrome, no longer considered a glycogen storage disease, but a defect of glucose transport. The designation of GSD type XI (GSD 11) has been repurposed for muscle lactate dehydrogenase deficiency (LDHA). GSD type XIV (GSD 14): No longer classed as a GSD, but as a congenital disorder of glycosylation type 1T (CDG1T), affects the phosphoglucomutase enzyme (gene PGM1). Phosphoglucomutase 1 deficiency is both a glycogenosis and a congenital disorder of glycosylation. Individuals with the disease have both a glycolytic block as muscle glycogen cannot be broken down, as well as abnormal serum transferrin (loss of complete N-glycans).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Most published work uses intranasal application, either as drops or as a nasal spray. Injection routes appear in a smaller set of animal experiments. Oral use is uncommon in the literature because peptide breakdown and poor absorption limit this route.
Reported human trials are few, brief and originate mainly from one country. They describe effects on anxiety-related measures, but sample sizes are small and reporting is limited. The results are widely regarded as preliminary rather than confirmed.
Reverse-phase liquid chromatography is used to assess purity and separation of related impurities. Mass spectrometry confirms that the observed molecular mass matches the expected peptide. A certificate of analysis from the supplier is the usual document of record.
Reports describe effects on GABA-A receptor expression, monoamine turnover, and neurotrophic factor levels. These are proposed mechanisms drawn mainly from animal models. No single molecular target has been established.